Manchu Nationality

Due to historical reasons, Manchu people are scattered all over the country, most of them live in Liaoning Province, and others are scattered in Jilin, Heilongjiang, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu, Shandong and other provinces and regions, as well as large and medium-sized cities such as Beijing, Tianjin, Chengdu, Xi'an, Guangzhou and Yinchuan. The formation of large dispersion is characterized by small settlement. Manchu autonomous counties such as Xiuyan, Fengcheng, Xinbin, Qinglong, Fengning and Kuancheng have been established in the main inhabited areas, as well as several Manchu townships.

Chinese Mainland

According to the 2010 China census, the population of Manchu is 10410585, accounting for about 0.77% of China's population and 9.28% of ethnic minorities. Among the provincial administrative regions, the Manchu population in Liaoning and Hebei exceeds one million. Among them, there are 5336895 Manchu people in Liaoning Province, accounting for 51.26% of the Manchu population and 12.20% of the population of Liaoning Province; There are 2.18711 million Manchus in Hebei Province, accounting for 20.35% of the Manchu population and 70.80% of the minority population in Hebei Province. The Manchu population in Jilin, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia and Beijing exceeds 100000; Tens of thousands each in 17 provincial administrative regions such as Tianjin and Henan; There are thousands in Anhui, Fujian and other seven provincial administrative regions; The Manchu population in the Tibet Autonomous Region is the smallest, at 153. Manchu is the largest minority in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Beijing. Especially in Liaoning, Hebei and Heilongjiang provinces, Manchu accounts for more than 50% of local ethnic minorities; Manchu is the second largest minority in Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi and Shanxi; It ranks third in Henan, Shandong and Anhui.

overseas

There are also Manchu emigrants, but there are no statistics on the population.

Before Qing Dynasty

"Baishan and Heishui" in Northeast China is the hometown of Manchu. The origin of Manchu can be traced back to Sushen more than 2000 years ago and later yilou, Buji, Kui and Nuzhen.

Sushen people are one of the earliest recorded residents in Northeast China. They live in the north of Changbai Mountain, the east coast of the sea and the vast areas of Heilongjiang and Wusuli River basins. Sushen people mainly engaged in hunting and nomadism. They were good at riding and shooting and were brave. As early as the Shun and Yu dynasties, the Sushen people established contact with the Central Plains. At the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty (the early 11th century BC), the Department of Sushen once offered the "arrow stone" to the Zhou Dynasty. Zuozhuan records that "Sushen, Yan and Bo" were the "northern soil" of the Zhou Dynasty.

After the Warring States period, Sushen people changed their name to yilou, sometimes still using the old name. Yilou people also hunt with "arrow stone" and grow grain and are good at raising pigs. They can weave linen and build boats. After the Three Kingdoms, yilou people repeatedly paid tribute to the Central Plains Dynasty, and directly belonged to the Central Plains Dynasty. "Yilou mink" was a social treasure in the Three Kingdoms.

During the northern and Southern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, descendants of Sushen and yilou successively appeared under the names of Buji and Kui, with a population of dozens of tribes. Later, it developed into seven parts: sumo, Baishan, bochi, anchagu, fune, Haoshi and Heishui.

In the Tang Dynasty, Da Zuo Rong established a local political power to "revitalize the country" in the upper reaches of the Songhua River and the northern foot of Changbai Mountain. In the first year of Kaiyuan of the Tang Dynasty (713), Da zuorong was canonized as the "Prince of Bohai Sea" by the Tang Dynasty and granted the "governor of Huhan Prefecture". From then on, he took Bohai Sea as the name. The political and military systems of the Bohai State were established according to the Tang system, using Chinese characters. The replacement of the king was canonized by the Tang Dynasty. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Bohai maintained a close relationship with the Tang Dynasty. Tribute envoys came to the Tang Dynasty almost every year and sent students to the Imperial College in Chang'an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty. The influence of politics, economy, advanced science and technology and culture in the Central Plains has promoted the rapid development of agriculture and handicraft industry in the Bohai Sea, especially iron smelting and silk weaving.

Before and after the founding of the Bohai Sea, heishuikan often paid tribute to the Tang Dynasty. In the 13th year of Kaiyuan of the Tang Dynasty (725), the Tang Dynasty set up the Heishui army in Heishui Pei area, and then set up the Heishui government, which granted the heads of Heishui Pei departments, governors, assassins and other officials respectively, and the chief Shi Jianzhi, surnamed Li. General Yun Hui led the Heishui economic envoy and was subordinate to the governor of Youzhou. It became a local organization directly under the Heilongjiang River Basin in the Tang Dynasty. When the Bohai Sea was strong, some Heishui people were their subordinates. After the fall of the Liao Dynasty to the Bohai Sea, it moved south to the people of the Bohai Sea, and Heishui moved south to the hometown of the Bohai Sea, gradually replacing the Bohai Sea. In the Five Dynasties, heishuikan was called "Nuzhen". In the Liao Dynasty, it was renamed nuzhi in order to avoid the taboo of Liao xingzongye and Lu Zongzhen. Since then, the title of Nuzhen replaced Kui Kui and continued to be used until the end of the Ming Dynasty.

The female immortal of Liao Dynasty can be divided into three parts. The immortal women living in the east of Liaoning Province are called familiar women's Zhen or Liao nationality women's Zhen; The immortal women living in the vast area north of the Songhua River are called shengnvzhen, or they are not Liao Nvzhen; Living between the two is called huiba (one is Huihe) Nvzhen. Due to the introduction and use of iron, the production of Wanyan department in shengnvzhen has developed rapidly. Under the leadership of the leader Wan Yan Aguda, he set up troops against Liao and established the Jin Dynasty. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, it united with the Northern Song Dynasty to destroy the Liao, and soon moved south to replace the Northern Song Dynasty, forming a situation of coexistence with the Southern Song Dynasty.

After the Jin Dynasty occupied the Central Plains, the capital was moved to Yanjing in the first year of Zhenyuan (1153) to implement the policy of "moving from south to North". The female immortal first moved to Yanshan and later settled in North China, while the Han people gradually moved north. Under the influence of the Han nationality and the surrounding environment, the immortal women who settled in the Central Plains gradually integrated with the Han nationality. After Mongolia destroyed the Jin Dynasty, they were listed in the "Han" level, indicating that there was no obvious difference between them and the Han nationality. The female immortals retained in Northeast China are still relatively backward.

Some of the female immortals of the Yuan Dynasty lived in the jurisdiction of Liaoyang and other roads, lived together with the Han nationality, and gradually integrated with the Han nationality; One is scattered in shuidada Road, Helan Prefecture, which is centered on Yilan County, Heilongjiang Province. It is distributed in the Songhua River Basin, the middle and lower reaches of Heilongjiang and the vast area of the east coast. In the Yuan Dynasty, there were "officials and herdsmen". In this area, five ten thousand households' houses and Marshal's house of the eastern expedition were successively established, two thousand households' houses were established in the Wusuli River Basin, and ten thousand households' houses were established in the lower reaches of Heilongjiang Province. The local ethnic upper class "ruled by customs".

According to their geographical location and social development, the real women in the Ming Dynasty were divided into Jianzhou Nvzhen, Haixi Nvzhen and Donghai Nvzhen (called savage Nvzhen in the Ming Dynasty). Jianzhou Nuzhen is distributed in the east of Fushun, centered on Hunhe River Basin, reaching the East and north foot of Changbai Mountain in the East and Yalu River in the south. Hercynian Jurchen is distributed outside Kaiyuan, in the Huifa River Basin, to the north at the great turn of the middle reaches of the Songhua River. Nuzhen in the East China Sea is distributed in Jianzhou, the East and north of Nuzhen in Haixi, generally from the middle reaches of Songhua River to Heilongjiang Basin and the coast to the East. With the rapid development of social economy, female immortal moved from hunting and nomadism to settlement, and her economy changed from hunting economy to mainly engaged in agriculture, supplemented by hunting and gathering. From the perspective of social form and class relations, there have been slave owners and slave classes. In listening to the rain, Fogg of the Qing Dynasty said: "there are crops and crops in Manchuria, and there are people living in castles for generations", "dozens of giant families occupy their own villages, and small families also build their own fortresses. They are powerful to each other, and each minister and his people have their own city outline. Indigenous people learn to shoot and hunt and know about crops and crops". The Ming Dynasty set up more than 380 Jimi guards and offices in the vast Jurchen area, and set up the command department of nuergan capital in Telin on the opposite bank of the confluence of Heilongjiang and henggunhe river. The leaders of each department of Jurchen were appointed governor, commander of capital, thousand households, hundred households and governor of town. They were given imperial edicts, seals, clothes and banknotes, and stipulated the time and treatment of tribute and horse market, It strengthened the direct rule of the Ming Dynasty over the northeast. Since the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, with nuergandasi as the center, six transportation trunk lines and more than 40 post stations have been established in the northeast, forming a transportation network extending in all directions, which further promoted the economic and cultural exchanges between Nuzhen and Han areas.

After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, various departments of Nuzhen fought against each other and often fought, resulting in a chaotic situation of killing each other, and the people of Nuzhen suffered great pain. Nurhachi, the emperor of the Qing Dynasty, was the sixth grandson of brother Timur, Zuo Weimeng of Jianzhou. He had excellent political and military talents. He followed the trend of historical development and began the war to unify all Nvzhen departments. Nurhachi lost his mother at the age of 10 and was captured at Atai's house at the age of 15 or 16. Seeing his cleverness, Li Chengliang, the general soldier of Liaodong, was placed under his subordinates and made many military achievements in the army. At the age of 19, he took the opportunity to "float away" from Li Chengliang. Later, he went into the mountains to collect mountain goods and traveled to and from Fushun horse city. He was familiar with the situation of Han areas and was deeply influenced by Han culture. After he took up the army, he was successively appointed commander, commander, governor and general Longhu in the Ming Dynasty. From the 11th year of Wanli of the Ming Dynasty (1583), Nurhachi used 11 years to unify the Nvzhen of Jianzhou and thwart the attack of 30000 people of 9 coalition forces such as ye he. In the 41st year of Wanli (1613), it merged hada, Huifa and Wula in the Hercynian Jurchen. At the same time, in the use of troops in various parts of the East China Sea, they also continued to win. In more than 30 years, Nurhachi has unified all the scattered Nvzhen ministries in the vast areas of the east to the seashore, the west to Kaiyuan, the north to the Nenjiang River Basin and the south to the Yalu River.

Qing Dynasty

In the process of unifying the Nuzhen ministries, Nurhachi took a series of measures to develop the economy, strengthened the connection with the Han area, promoted the economic development of the Nuzhen society, and appeared the situation of "the people of Manchuria are rich and the country is rich". At the same time, political and military reforms were carried out. In the 15th year of Wanli (1587), the city of feiala was established on the Bank of Erdao river. In June, the state government was "determined" and the law for the protection of private property was established. In the process of unifying the Nuzhen ministries, Nurhachi creatively transformed the hunting organization Niulu and established the famous Eight Banners system, which had a great impact on the history of the later Jin and Qing Dynasties and the development of Manchu social history. In the 44th year of Wanli of the Ming Dynasty (1616), Nurhachi established the great Jin State in hetuala (now Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province), calling himself "Yingming Khan", which is known as the later Jin Dynasty in history. Later, during the unification of Nuzhen ministries and the war against the Ming Dynasty, the capital was successively moved to Liaoyang, Tokyo and Shenyang. In the 11th year of Tianming (1626), Emperor Taiji of Emperor Taizong of the Qing Dynasty succeeded to the throne and changed the yuan to "Tiancong". The Eight Banners Mongol and eight banners Han armies were successively formed and completed during this period. In the 10th year of Tiancong (1636), Huang Taiji changed the country's name to "Qing Dynasty", Jianyuan Chongde. Nurhachi and Huang Taiji made unremitting efforts to consolidate and develop the post Jin regime and laid the foundation for the unification of the whole country in the Qing Dynasty.

In the first year of Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty (1644), the Qing army entered the customs and gradually unified the whole country. From then on, the Manchu aristocracy began to rule the whole country.

In the early Qing Dynasty, under the influence of the feudal system of the Han nationality, the existing slavery and serfdom of the Manchu outside the pass accelerated the transformation to the feudal landlord economy. This transformation process is full of fierce class struggle, including top-down reform. The ruling classes of Manchu and Han were gradually integrated, class and national contradictions tended to ease, and the social economy gradually recovered and moved towards prosperity. During the prosperous period of Kang and Qian dynasties, China was stable, the territory was unprecedented vast, the feudal economy developed, the population increased sharply, and the ethnic relations were harmonious.

At the beginning of Kangxi, Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong and Shang Kexi, who occupied several southern provinces, gradually became a separatist regime, posing a great threat to the national unity. Emperor Kangxi decisively decided to withdraw from San Francisco and launched a war to calm San Francisco with the support of the people all over the country. Most of the Manchu people in Beijing banner, the Eight Banners stationed in various localities, and even the three northeastern provinces were transferred to the front line to participate in the war, making contributions to the suppression of rebels and the consolidation of national unity. In the 17th century, tsarist Russia colluded with the kardan Khan of the Junggar region of Mongolia in the northwest frontier of China to constantly attack and harass the Mongolian region. In the 29th year of Kangxi (1690), kardan once forced into the Ulan Butong region of Inner Mongolia, only 700 miles from Beijing, and the capital shook. Prince Yu Fuquan led the eight flag army to launch a large-scale fierce battle with kardan in Ulan Butong and defeat the kardan department. In the 35th year of Kangxi (1696), Emperor Kangxi personally led a large army to fight the kardan rebels in zhaomodo area, basically annihilated the main force of the rebels and achieved a decisive victory in the anti rebel war. After 70 years of struggle from Yongzheng to Qianlong, the separatist forces of the Junggar aristocratic group were destroyed. In this war that lasted for decades, a large number of officers and men of the Eight Banners went to the battlefield and fought bravely to safeguard the reunification of the motherland.

The Manchus also made their own contributions in defending the motherland's frontier and stopping foreign aggression. After the middle of the 17th century, tsarist Russia continued to invade China's Heilongjiang Basin. In the 24th year of Kangxi (1685), Emperor Kangxi sent Peng Chun, the Manchu capital, to lead the eight flag soldiers and navy to expel the Tsarist Russian invaders, defend the national territorial sovereignty and protect the local people. In 1689, China and Russia signed the China Russia Nebuchadnezzar Treaty on the basis of equality, which defined the border. Since then, the border areas of the two countries have maintained normal relations for more than 100 years. In the late Qianlong period, the Gurkha rulers supported by the British colonists attacked Tibet by force. In the 56th year of Qianlong (1795), the Qing Dynasty sent Fu Kangan, a Manchu scholar, and other troops into Tibet. With the support of the Tibetan people, they defeated Gurkha, ensured the security of the Tibetan border and smashed the conspiracy of the British colonists. At the beginning of the 19th century, the British colonists ordered Zhang ger to harass the border areas of Xinjiang for many times. Emperor Daoguang sent Manchu senior scholars to lead the Manchu and Han soldiers in Xinjiang, and sent flag men stationed in Northeast China and other places to rush for help to capture Zhang ger alive, which once again smashed the attempt of the British colonists to invade Chinese territory.

During the Kangxi and Qianlong periods, China's territory began from Sakhalin Island in the East, Zengmu sand in the south, Congling mountain in the west, Balkash Lake in the northwest, across the desert in the north and Xing'an Mountains in the northeast. The territory was about 12.5 million square kilometers. The vast multi-ethnic country was further consolidated.

After the Opium War in 1840, China became a semi colonial and semi feudal society. Together with the people of all ethnic groups in China, the Manchu nationality fought bravely against the imperialist invaders of foreign capital and paid the price of blood and life in order to defend the independence of the motherland and safeguard national dignity.

In May 1842, the British Invaders made every effort to attack Zhapu, an important coastal defense town in Zhejiang and Zhejiang, which was also one of the Eight Banners in the Qing Dynasty. The flag soldiers stationed at Tianzun temple in the suburb of Zhapu, led by Zuo linglongfu, repulsed five attacks of the British army, killed a large number of enemy troops and killed Lieutenant Colonel Tang Linson of the 18th regiment of the British army. Almost all of the 276 Manchu officers and soldiers died. Even foreign records believe that the Zhapu Manchu soldiers are tenacious soldiers. In July, the British army attacked Zhenjiang. More than 1000 flag soldiers stationed there fought to the death under the leadership of deputy capital Tong Hailing. After the city fell, they insisted on street fighting. Finally, all died heroically because of the great disparity of strength. When praising the heroic spirit of the garrison in Zhenjiang, Engels pointed out: "if these aggressors were subjected to the same resistance everywhere, they would never reach Nanjing." in the second Opium War, the Tsarist Russian colonists forcibly occupied more than 1 million square kilometers of China's northeast frontier. The local people of Manchu and Han nationalities, in order to defend the territory of the motherland and oppose tsarist Russian aggression and colonial rule, Fought bravely. In 1894, during the Sino Japanese War of 1894, the Japanese army occupied a large area of Eastern Liaoning, arousing strong resistance from the local people of Han, Manchu, Korean and other nationalities. They organized group exercises against the Japanese army one after another. Kui Fu and Xishou of Manchu are famous leaders of group exercises. In the battle to defend Liaoyang, the Manchu and Han people resisted bravely and thwarted the Japanese invasion four times in a month. When the Boxer Movement broke out in 1900, the Manchu people in Beijing, the three northeastern provinces, Hebei and Shandong actively engaged in the patriotic struggle against imperialism. Jinchang, the Manchu Deputy capital of the Northeast Chongxin boxer, led hundreds of eight flag soldiers (Yuzi Army) to capture the French church in one fell swoop. Ji long, a Frenchman who shot and killed the Chinese people, was also executed by the boxer. In 1911, the revolution of 1911 broke out, and there were not a few Manchu revolutionaries. Garrison the Eight Banners in Guangzhou, Chengdu and other places and reach peace agreements with the revolutionaries; The garrison flag men in Hangzhou, Jingzhou and other places had a brief exchange of fire with the revolutionary army, but soon turned to a peaceful solution; Throughout the northeast, Bao Huanan and he xiuzhai of the Manchu nationality led the armed uprisings in Fengcheng and other places; Bao Kun and Tian Yabin, Manchu intellectuals, and Zhang Rong, a member of the Alliance (the flag bearer of the Han Army), organized a "joint advance meeting" in Fengtian and put forward the idea of building a "Manchu Han joint Republic". The extensive participation of the Manchu people in the revolution of 1911 shows that the Manchu people are consistent with the people of all ethnic groups in class interests in the struggle against feudal rule.

The fall of the Qing Dynasty

The revolution of 1911, the fall of the Qing government, the dissolution of flag camps, the suspension of grain and pay, and the complete collapse of the eight flag system had a great impact on the Manchu people. The breaking of the shackles of the Eight Banners system liberated the Manchu from the life of being enslaved, driven and war by a few aristocrats. However, under the background of serious ethnic discrimination during the Warlord's rule, they experienced a painful process from relying on wages and food to self-reliance. From the warlord rule to the Kuomintang period, the turbulent social state and the Japanese imperialist aggression against China exacerbated the hardships of the Manchu people.

The Manchus living in rural areas are concentrated in the vast rural areas of Northeast China. Like the Han people, they are oppressed by imperialism, feudal landlords and the reactionary army. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the flag lands in the rural areas of Northeast China have been highly concentrated in the hands of a few landlords, and the Manchu people who lost their land have been displaced. According to the survey of some Manchu inhabited areas in the three northeastern provinces, landlords and rich peasants, who account for about 10% of the total population, occupy more than 70% of the land. The Manchu people who rent the landlord's land should share half of the grain with the landlord if the land is better, and 46 or 37 with the landlord if the land is poor. Besides paying the rent, he had to do all kinds of chores for the landlord. In case of natural and man-made disasters, the poor Manchu people had to borrow money from landlords and usurers, and were brutally exploited by usury, with an average annual interest rate of three to eight cents. Employees are more exploited and work longer hours. They get up at five o'clock in the morning and light the lights at night, but they get little pay. According to the field survey in Fengcheng County, the maximum annual income of long-term workers is no more than 100 yuan (old currency). The income from part-time and odd jobs is less, and only 50 or 60 cents a day. Even so, in the slack season, it is difficult for short-time workers to find employers and are threatened by unemployment. In addition, there are exorbitant taxes and miscellaneous taxes. After the revolution of 1911, under the rule of reactionary warlords and imperialist forces, there are many kinds of taxes in rural areas, such as portal fees, Concorde fees, school construction fees, miscellaneous fees and comprehensive fees. These extremely heavy exorbitant taxes and miscellaneous taxes must be paid within a specified time, otherwise they will be punished, beaten and even imprisoned. During the Japanese puppet period, the Japanese imperialists engaged in the "development group" to operate agriculture, occupied a large area of rural land, and the life of the Manchu people was even more miserable. Under the "grain and grain delivery system" implemented by the Japanese, after the autumn harvest, all farmers' harvests must be turned in, and then they rely on the "ration system" to distribute food to live. With the deduction of landlords, village heads, village heads and ration shop owners, there is little food left in the hands of farmers. We also have to perform military service and work for the Japanese puppets. The poor labor life has claimed many lives. Workers who built secret military projects were slaughtered collectively upon completion.

The Manchus living in cities are mainly concentrated in the major cities in Northeast China. In the industrial and mining enterprises run by Japanese imperialism and bureaucratic comprador capital, the workers of Manchu and Han nationalities are brutally exploited, their wages are very low, and are arbitrarily abused by the supervisor at any time. Moreover, various accidents occur frequently in industries and mines, and life is also lack of guarantee.

The Manchus in the mainland provinces, mainly the descendants of the Manchus in Beijing banner and the Eight Banners stationed in various places, are concentrated in the garrison and its surrounding cities. In the Gyeonggi region, a very small number of descendants of nobles and senior officials of the Qing Dynasty opened some shops using their ancestral properties. Most people lived by selling real estate, jewelry, calligraphy and painting. In September 1931, the news of "iron hat King pulling foreign cars" appeared in Beiping newspapers. In the past, Royal relatives and relatives also made a living by playing drums and selling rags in the streets. The life of the lower Manchu people is even more miserable. Most of them are workers, odd jobs, Coachmans, handicraftsmen, small vendors and public educators. They live a precarious life under the rule of warlords and the Kuomintang. Since then, under the condition of serious ethnic discrimination, Manchu people were forced to change to Han people, otherwise they either couldn't find a place to live or lost their existing jobs and positions. They were forced to hide their ethnic composition and migrate everywhere. The Manchus in Guangzhou are small traders and handicraftsmen, accounting for more than 60% of the working population. In Chengdu, Jingzhou and other places, doing odd jobs and pulling rickshaws have also become the main occupations of the Manchus. Without a fixed income, he is often unemployed and leads a miserable life. There are many intellectuals among the Manchu people everywhere, usually public education personnel and scientific and artistic workers. In the environment of ethnic discrimination, their work is extremely unstable, their wages are meager, coupled with soaring prices, their life is also very difficult.

Resist aggression

In the war of resistance against Japan and the war of liberation, the Manchu people actively participated and made their own contributions to the liberation of the Chinese people. After the September 18th Incident in 1931, the Manchu people quickly set off an upsurge of resistance against Japan. They joined the volunteer army, the Anti Japanese Association and the red guerrillas, and took various forms to combat the Japanese invaders and traitors. The red guerrillas grew stronger and stronger in the battle. They joined other anti Japanese armed forces and established an anti Japanese coalition army in 1935. They moved to all parts of the northeast. A large number of Manchu people joined the Anti Japanese coalition army. Manchu generals above division commander include Wang Guangyu, Zhang Lansheng, Chen Hanzhang, Guan Huaxin, Yi Junshan, etc. they became the backbone of the Anti Japanese coalition army under the training and leadership of the Communist Party of China, He made meritorious contributions in the war of resistance against Japan. After the outbreak of the all-round war of resistance against Japan, the majority of Manchu people actively supported the Eighth Route Army, the New Fourth Army and other anti Japanese forces and persisted in the war of resistance against Japan. Guan Xiangying of Manchu nationality once served as the political commissar of the 120th division of the Eighth Route Army and participated in the development of Jinsui Anti Japanese base area. Later, he went with he long into central Hebei, consolidated the Anti Japanese base area in the central Hebei Plain, and became an outstanding commander and proletarian revolutionist in the cause of Chinese people's liberation.

Organizational system

In the 12th century, a social organization called "Meng an MOU Ke" appeared among the immortal women of the Jin Dynasty. Meng'an is a tribal unit and mou'ke is a clan unit. At first, 1 meng'an could include 8 to 10 mooks, and its leader was called "bojilie". Before the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, it was customized as 1 Mou gram for every 300 households and 1 meng'an for every 10 Mou grams. Meng anmou Ke is not only a military organization, but also a social organization integrating soldiers and civilians. All members of the organization are soldiers when they go out and people when they enter, and occupy a certain amount of land. The supreme ruler of the Jin Dynasty controlled the meng'anmuk organization through his clan and generals. After entering the Central Plains, the meng'an mouke system was extended to "subordinate and surrender people", including Han people and Qidan people. During the reign of Jin Xizong (1135-1137), it developed into a feudal organization integrating military, production and local administrative institutions. According to the official system of the Jin Dynasty, meng'an was in charge of military affairs, trained martial arts, advised farmers and mulberry, and, like the defense envoys of various defense States, had the task of "defending without fear and controlling stealing Fu". Mou Ke is from the five grades, controls the collection of military households, trains martial arts, and has all the functions and powers of the county magistrate except for not managing the regular closing positions. There are villages under Mou Ke, and one village envoy is set up for more than 50 households to urge the governor to pay taxes and servitude according to the household registration. Meng'an mouke people usually engage in agricultural production after training. In case of war, Ding Zhuang accepted the expedition and set out with his own pommel horse equipment; Their families are still producing at home. Meng'an mouke system, as a social organization and system of military and political integration created by Nuzhen nationality, played an important role in foreign war and internal rule, especially in the early stage: it promoted the scattered Nuzhen departments to form a unified Nuzhen nationality at that time; In the war of destroying Liao and attacking Song Dynasty, the combat effectiveness of Nvzhen soldiers was greatly enhanced; A large number of immortal women under the meng'anmuk organization quickly moved to the newly occupied areas and consolidated their rule over the newly conquered areas; At the same time, for a large number of newly conquered places, Meng anmou Ke was adopted, which weakened the resistance of the local people. Since then, the scattered Nvzhen Meng anmou Ke households often rented their land and farmed with Han tenant farmers to collect land rent. Meng anmou Ke did not work in production and neglected training, and his combat effectiveness gradually weakened. It is quite similar to the Eight Banners system in the later Jin Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty.

In the process of unifying the Nuzhen departments, Nuerhachi, the emperor Taizu of the Qing Dynasty, creatively transformed the hunting organization Niulu and established the famous Eight Banner system. Niu Lu was originally a production and military organization during the clan system of female immortals. When marching or hunting, they marched according to their families and villages. Every ten people were a marching unit, and "Niu Lu EZHEN" was set as the leader (Niu Lu is an arrow, EZHEN means the Lord). Nurhachi organized a unified organization on this basis, stipulating that every 300 people should be compiled into a Niu record, and Niu record EZHEN (assistant leader) should manage all its internal affairs. Every five cattle is recorded as one Jiala, with one Jiala E-zhen (reference collar), and every five Jiala is set as one Gushan E-zhen, namely the flag master (later called Dutong). In the 29th year of Wanli (1601), the four banners of yellow, red, blue and white were initially established. In the 43rd year (1615), the four banners of yellow, red, blue and white were added to form eight banners. In the Qing Dynasty, the number of cattle changed from time to time, but the flag system remained unchanged. In the ninth year of Tiancong (1635), Huang Taiji officially compiled many Mongols into "Eight Banner Mongolia". From the fifth year of Tiancong (1631) to the seventh year of Chongde (1642), the Eight Banners Han army was gradually established. At this point, the three parts of the Eight Banners organization were finally completed. The Eight Banners Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han army all belong to the same social organization - the eight banners.

The Eight Banners system, as an organization of social and political integration and the integration of soldiers and people, played an important role in effectively organizing the people to war and the unification of the whole China in the Qing Dynasty. After the Qing Dynasty entered the customs, the Eight Banners organization was further strengthened. Most of the main forces of the eight banners at the time of entry stayed in Beijing and took the inner city of the capital as the residence of the population of the eight banners; The population of the Eight Banners left in the Northeast outside the pass is called Shengjing Garrison and ningguta garrison; After that, the Eight Banners successively sent to mainland provinces were called direct provincial garrison; During the period from Kangxi to Qianlong, the separatist forces of various ministries in Xinjiang were defeated, and the Eight Banners garrison system centered on Urumqi and Ili was successively established, which is called Xinjiang garrison. All over the country, eight banners are stationed in the capital cities and the main roads of guanjin, supplemented by the green camp army with the Han nationality as the main body, forming a national control system centered on Beijing and based on the armed forces of the eight banners.

The Manchu people in the Qing Dynasty basically lived under the Eight Banners system. Manchu soldiers participated in almost all wars of the Qing Dynasty. On the one hand, they were proud of their great achievements in the war, on the other hand, they paid great sacrifices for the war. One of the biggest changes in Manchu social life in the Qing Dynasty was that the Eight Banners soldiers changed from the flag land system in the past outside the pass to the flag salary system after entering the pass. The eight banners are an organization integrating soldiers and the people. In principle, all adult men are soldiers or reserve soldiers. Before entering the customs, three men take one as a soldier. With the proliferation of the population, five men take one in Kangxi, and then eight men take one in the future, fifteen men take one in the future. When the war is tense, all may go into battle in armor, and even women have to undertake the logistics of agriculture and war. Its basic source of livelihood is to distribute the eight banners to a certain number of flag lands. The output of the flag area should not only bear the life of the flag soldiers and their families, but also bear the luggage and armor required by the flag soldiers. After entering the pass, the soldiers of the Eight Banners also got a piece of land in the capital and capital region according to the old system of "planning and dictation of land". However, with frequent wars, the soldiers had no time to cultivate and were unwilling to cultivate. At the same time, it was impossible to provide enough land for them in the Han area with small land and large population. Therefore, the Qing Dynasty began to pay silver and monthly rice to the soldiers of the Eight Banners when entering the pass, Military pay has become the basic source of livelihood of the population of the eight banners. On the surface, the salaries of ordinary soldiers are rich, but they are not rich after they bear the expenses of wartime weapons and horses and the lives of their families. Throughout the Qing Dynasty, the number of soldiers in the Eight Banners did not increase, while the population of the Eight Banners increased greatly. A large number of adult soldiers in the banners could not be selected and supplemented in time, resulting in the situation that one soldier's silver rice had to feed a large population. According to the provisions of the Eight Banners system, the population in the banners shall not engage in agriculture, industry and Commerce in order to make a living. Moreover, the flag people can not leave the place they are stationed at will. It is stipulated that the population of Beijing flag can not leave the station for 40 Li, and the flag people stationed in various places can not leave the station for 20 Li. This is the origin of the serious "livelihood of the eight banners" in the Qing Dynasty. The lower level flag soldiers became increasingly impoverished under the eight flag system. Although the Qing government took a number of measures to solve this problem, the flag system, as a fundamental national policy, could not change the poverty of the flag soldiers. From a class perspective, the lower class flag soldiers, like the working people of all ethnic groups, are also the ruling class.

In military politics, the Eight Banners army was the cornerstone of the existence of the Qing regime. From the aspect of civil affairs, the Eight Banners system was an effective means of dividing the banner and the people in the Qing Dynasty. In the case of sharp ethnic contradictions in the early Qing Dynasty, the Eight Banners system separated the population of the eight banners from the Han nationality, which alleviated the ethnic contradictions to a certain extent. After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the separation between the flag and the people was also one of the means to prevent the population of the eight flags from melting into the vast sea of the Han nationality. However, a nation, the whole people, or reserve soldiers, or the families of soldiers, are not allowed to make a living in agriculture, industry and commerce, which is also a serious constraint for the Manchu dominated population, and finally becomes a yoke of national development. After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, "the livelihood of the eight banners" became a serious social and political problem in the Qing Dynasty. After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing government had a serious financial crisis, the Eight Banners could not be paid in full, and the life of the Eight Banners population was more difficult. This situation can be simply summarized as follows: the population increases but the number of troops does not increase, the price increases but the food and rates decrease. During the revolution of 1911, the Chengdu garrison flag reported the situation of the flag people to the newly established military government, saying: "there are about 14000 flag families in the whole city, of which only one tenth or two can stand on their own, and the rest have no permanent property". The Eight Banners system has become a serious shackle to the development of the Manchu nationality from the perspective of the long-term development of the nation.

Development status

After the founding of new China, the Manchu nationality, together with the people of all ethnic groups in the country, became masters of the country and enjoyed national equal rights. In 1957, a number of Manchu townships were established in the suburbs of Beijing: Labagoumen Manchu Township in Huairou County, ZHUANSHANZI Manchu Township, qidaohe Manchu Township, changshaoying Manchu Township, donghuangliang Manchu Township, Tanying Manchu Township and Mengmin Township in Miyun County. In 1958, the Manchu Autonomous township was changed into a people's commune. After the reform and opening up, Tanying Manchu and Mongolian nationality township was restored and rebuilt in 1983, and then Manchu townships such as Labagoumen and changshaoying were restored. At the same time, in some scattered Manchu areas, Manchu also established ethnic townships jointly with other ethnic minorities. For example, in 1982, six ethnic townships, including Miao, Yi, Manchu and Miao Manchu, were established in Qianxi, Dafang and Jinsha counties of Bijie Prefecture, Guizhou Province.

From the mid-1980s to the early 1990s, a number of Manchu autonomous counties were successively established in Liaoning, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Jilin and other provinces and regions: 10 autonomous counties in Liaoning, including 8 Manchu, namely Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County under the jurisdiction of Anshan City, Xinbin, Qingyuan Manchu Autonomous County under the jurisdiction of Fushun City, Benxi, Huanren Manchu Autonomous County under the jurisdiction of Benxi City, Fengcheng under the jurisdiction of Dandong City Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County and Jinzhou Manchu Autonomous County under the jurisdiction of Beizhen town. There are 6 autonomous counties in Hebei Province, including 4 Manchu autonomous counties, namely Qinglong Manchu Autonomous County under Qinhuangdao City, Kuancheng, Fengning Manchu Autonomous County and Weichang Manchu and Mongolian Autonomous County under the jurisdiction of Chengde city. Yitong Manchu Autonomous County, Siping, Jilin Province. Among them, Fengcheng Manchu Autonomous County of Liaoning Province was approved by the State Council on March 8, 1994, and Beizhen Manchu Autonomous County was approved by the State Council in March 1995. At present, there are also a number of Manchu Autonomous townships and towns (or joint Manchu and other ethnic minorities), including 87 in Liaoning Province, 11 in Jilin Province, 11 in Heilongjiang Province, 81 in Hebei Province, 3 in Beijing, 1 in Tianjin and 3 in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

With the implementation of the party's ethnic policy, the ranks of Manchu cadres continue to grow and enjoy equal political power. In 1959, the Manchu population in Beijing was 89181, including 1586 cadres. According to statistics in 1978, before the reform and opening up, there were 19287 Manchu cadres in Liaoning Province, including 10716 professional and technical cadres. In 1978, Mr. Pu Jie was elected as a deputy to the National People's Congress. Professor Qigong, a Manchu calligrapher and painter, served as the deputy director of the Beijing Municipal Ethnic Affairs Committee. There are many Manchu representatives in the people's congresses and CPPCC in Beijing and all over the country. At the Ninth People's Congress of Xiuyan County in 1980, among the 345 people's deputies, 176 Manchu deputies were elected, accounting for 51% of the total number of deputies, slightly higher than the proportion of Manchu in the total population of Xiuyan at that time. There are 17 Manchu deputies to the Fifth National People's Congress. In 1996, there were more than 160000 minority cadres in Liaoning Province, accounting for more than 10% of the total number of cadres in Liaoning Province. There was a large increase in minority cadres in party and government leading groups at all levels.

Since the founding of new China, the Manchu economy has developed greatly with the care and help of the party and the government. Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County is a mountainous area with eight mountains, half water and half fields. The Manchu people in Xiuyan County have worked in unity with the people of all ethnic groups. Based on agriculture, diversified economy has developed in an all-round way, and the people's living standards have been greatly improved. Manchu farmers in Tanying, Miyun County, on the outskirts of Beijing, with the help of the government, built water conservancy and transformed their former flag camp houses. The Manchus in Tanying have savings and surplus grain. Everyone is very happy to say, "Tanying has changed since the Communist Party came.". On the industrial front, the northeast is China's old industrial base and the largest populated area of the Manchu nationality. Manchu workers in Northeast China are mainly distributed in steel, machinery, coal, textile, transportation and other departments. The majority of Manchu workers have actively invested in socialist construction, and there have been many technical innovation experts, many innovations and creations. During the ten-year turmoil, Manchu workers and workers of all ethnic groups insisted on production, ensuring the normal progress of Anshan Iron and steel production.

Since the reform and opening up, Manchu autonomous regions have made considerable economic development.

In agriculture, the reform and opening up has brought about historic changes in agriculture in Manchu inhabited areas. In Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province, where Manchu accounts for 70% of the total population, the party's new economic policy has truly linked farmers' labor with income, greatly mobilized farmers' production enthusiasm and sustained agricultural economic development. After 2000, Xinbin County adjusted the agricultural industry and product structure according to the requirements of China's entry into WTO and the development of market economy, and formed a new pattern of characteristic agriculture dominated by five industries: forestry, traditional Chinese medicine, forest frog breeding, herbivore feeding, mushrooms, high-quality rice and wild vegetables. In 2004, Xinbin became a national demonstration county for comprehensive development of mountainous areas, a national demonstration county for ecological construction, a national base county for straw cattle raising, a hometown of forest frogs in China, a key county for forestry production in Liaoning Province, a base county for traditional Chinese medicine, mushroom and wood production in Liaoning Province, and a major tourism County in Liaoning Province. Yitong Manchu Autonomous County of Jilin Province is one of the commodity grain base counties in China, and its grain yield ranks first in the province. In the rural areas in the suburbs of Beijing inhabited by Manchus, like other ethnic minority areas, the contract responsibility system based on output is implemented, and the diversified management of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, sideline and fishery in ethnic minority areas is vigorously developed.

The social and economic development of the Manchu nationality in various places has been strongly supported by the party and the government. For example, in 1997, in order to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the establishment of Qinglong and Fengning Manchu autonomous counties, relevant departments directly under Hebei province implemented various support funds of 28.63 million yuan for the two counties. Fengning Manchu Autonomous County completed a fixed asset investment of 770 million yuan in 2000, which directly supported the social and economic development of ethnic minority areas. In sungezhuang Manchu Autonomous Township, Jixian County, Tianjin, by 1999, the municipal government had allocated 1.5 million yuan of special financial funds for three consecutive years, and all of them were in place, which had produced great social and economic benefits, making this long backward mountain township keep up with the pace of getting rich in the city's rural areas.

Manchu inhabited areas with weak industrial foundation have made great progress in industry and transportation after the reform and opening up. In 2005, the GDP of Liaoning national autonomous areas reached 31.063 billion yuan, and increased investment in fixed assets. In 2005, the total investment in fixed assets of the whole society was 9.96 billion yuan, an increase of 262.2% over the end of the ninth five year plan. By the end of 2002, the industry of Yitong County, Jilin Province mainly included seven industries: machining, metallurgy, chemical industry, building materials, food, light textile and medicine. Great progress has been made in oil and gas development and its supporting projects, automobile supporting industrial base projects, etc. Xiuyan County, Liaoning Province, which is famous for its high-quality jade, has 100000 people engaged in jade mining, jade processing and jade sales, which is equivalent to one Xiuyan person in every five Xiuyan people engaged in "jade industry", increasing employment opportunities for people of all ethnic groups. The annual output value is 2.5 billion yuan and the annual profit and tax is 500 million yuan. Benxi Manchu Autonomous County has 38 large and medium-sized industrial enterprises, forming a complete industrial system dominated by mining, metallurgy, chemical industry, electromechanical, building materials and light industry. The industrial economy of Fengning Manchu Autonomous County, Hebei Province is dominated by resource development, and has initially established industrial economic systems such as gold, silver beneficiation and smelting, iron ore mining and beneficiation, stone development, wine making, food and beverage, dairy processing, beef and mutton segmentation processing, gas equipment manufacturing, wood products processing, brick and tile cement building materials production.

Transportation has also developed greatly. During the Ninth Five Year Plan period, relevant state and provincial departments increased investment in the transportation development of national and provincial poor national autonomous counties. The national autonomous counties in Liaoning, Jilin and other Manchu inhabited areas will increase the transportation subsidy by 300000-500000 yuan per county every year, and allocate special funds for key projects and traffic bottlenecks to support the development of local transportation in ethnic areas. For example, invest 30 million yuan to open the dawaoling tunnel of Huaben line in Huanren Manchu Autonomous County and completely solve the "old and difficult" problem of traffic in Huanren Manchu Autonomous County. Before 1998, 30 million yuan was invested to complete the reconstruction of class II Highway from Dandong City to Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County. Priority shall be given to the reconstruction of county (township) roads, bridges and culverts, subgrade and black pavement in national autonomous areas. In 1999, Liaoning Province subsidized 4.6 million yuan for transportation in ethnic autonomous areas, and arranged more than 420 million yuan for road construction. More than 60 million yuan was arranged for the southeast highway in Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County alone, which greatly improved the backward situation of transportation in ethnic autonomous areas. There are 13 townships and 110 villages in Huanren Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province, all connected by roads. Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County has realized the connection of asphalt roads to villages, asphalt roads to 70% of administrative villages and roads to 91% of administrative villages. The highway construction in Yitong Manchu Autonomous County has achieved unconventional development. The Highway export to Beidaqiao road and bridge widening and reconstruction project, Renmin Road construction project, jiukai highway phase I and II project, and the road construction project from Yitong town to Xiwei town have been completed, which has improved the road grade and traffic capacity.

The private economy in Manchu inhabited areas has also been greatly developed. Relying on and giving full play to the advantages of local resources, Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County has formed a number of resource-based processing industries focusing on the intensive processing of agricultural products such as wood, forest frog, traditional Chinese medicine, edible fungi and livestock products. A number of enterprises and enterprise groups supporting large and medium-sized cities have been cultivated. Some of these groups have become leading enterprises in the same industry in China. The Manchus in Chengdu set up chicken farms, township enterprises, private enterprises or enterprise groups to promote the development of commodity economy.

With the development of economy, the Manchu people and people of all ethnic groups have become rich, and their living standards have generally been significantly improved. In 1997, the total social output value of sungezhuang Manchu Township in Tianjin was 70 million yuan, an increase of 26.1% over the previous year, and the per capita net income reached 2266 yuan, an increase of 28.9% over the previous year. At the end of 2001, the per capita income of farmers in Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County reached 2466 yuan, an increase of 12% over the previous year, and has increased year by year since then. In Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County, the people's living standard and the per capita income of farmers reached 3000 yuan in 2005, with an average annual growth of 6.9%. The balance of savings deposits of urban and rural residents was 2.6 billion yuan. The income of Manchu farmers in Liaoning increased significantly and gradually narrowed the gap with the average level of the whole province. In 2005, the per capita net income of farmers in national autonomous areas reached 3462 yuan,. In 2000, Fengning Manchu Autonomous County in Hebei Province achieved a GDP of 1.38 billion yuan, a fixed asset investment of 770 million yuan, a fiscal revenue of 65 million yuan and a per capita net income of 1009 yuan. People's lives have been greatly improved.

Manchu culture and education have made new progress. Like other ethnic minorities, the Manchus in all regions have enjoyed preferential admission policies from colleges and universities, technical secondary schools and secondary technical schools since 1984. The enrollment of radio and television universities, vocational colleges, correspondence departments of colleges and universities and night universities also take care of ethnic minority candidates, which has given ethnic minority students more opportunities to enter higher education. In terms of the introduction of ethnic education and the hope project and the improvement of teaching facilities, the party and governments have given the Manchu and other ethnic minorities the same preferential policies. In Manchu education, some scientific research institutions, universities and Beijing Manchu academy have opened Manchu classes and trained a number of Manchu talents.

In literature and art, many accomplished Manchu writers and artists, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, radiated revolutionary youth and made positive contributions to the cultural cause of the motherland. Cheng Yanqiu, a famous Manchu Peking Opera artist, has profound artistic attainments and unique style. Lao She, a patriotic Manchu writer and people's artist, wrote a large number of literary works such as Longxugou, saleswoman, teahouse and under Zhenghong banner, which were loved by the masses. Mr. Lao She is a "people's artist" that the people will always miss. Luo Changpei, a Manchu linguist, devoted his whole life to the development of Chinese grammar, phonology, dialect, dictionary compilation and phonetic experiment, vigorously advocated and promoted the investigation and research of minority languages, and made valuable contributions to the development of Language Science in New China. Hou Baolin, a crosstalk artist, was already a famous crosstalk artist during the Anti Japanese war. After the founding of new China, Hou Baolin radiated his artistic youth, modified and processed the traditional crosstalk, and created a number of new crosstalk that reflected real life. He was welcomed by audiences at home and abroad and was known as "crosstalk art master" and "magnificent national treasure". The Manchu people have also made great achievements in traditional Chinese painting. After the founding of new China, with the care and help of the people's government, many old Manchu artists such as "mianrenlang", "clay figurine Tang" and "huamianjin" in Beijing gave full play to their ancestral craft expertise and produced many handicrafts welcomed and loved at home and abroad. Manchu artists are also good at jade carving and nuclear carving. They depict the new face of the motherland on all fronts after the founding of new China with exquisite skills.

Reform and opening up and the party's policy of enriching the people have given the Manchu a broad space for full development, and the Manchu has made new development in politics, economy and culture. Taking the new opportunity of revitalizing the old industrial base in Northeast China and building a new socialist countryside, the Manchu nationality, together with the people of all ethnic groups in China, has entered a new historical period.

language

Manchu has its own language and characters. Manchu belongs to the Manchu branch of man Tungusic language family of Altai language family. Manchu characters were founded at the end of the 16th century. In the song and Jin Dynasties, Nvzhen had her own characters. The early Nvzhen characters were syllable words derived from Chinese characters, but they have been lost for a long time. At the end of the 16th century, after Nurhachi unified the northeast, he spelled the pronunciation of Manchu with Mongolian letters, forming a new character called "old Manchu". During the period of Huang Taiji, circle points were added to the borrowed Mongolian letters to distinguish the pronunciation, which was called circled Manchu or "new Manchu".

Manchu, as an official language, was used for a long time in the Qing Dynasty. It once became a widely used language throughout the country, leaving a large number of archives and materials, and became a treasure in the treasure house of the cultural heritage of the Chinese nation. After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, Manchu was gradually abandoned. Manchu basically used Chinese northern dialect. Only flag people and flag officials still had to use Manchu on some specific occasions. By the 1980s, Manchu had disappeared, except that a few old people of Xibo Nationality in some remote areas of Northeast China and Xinjiang could still use Manchu. However, as a widely used language, Manchu has left a deep mark in many local Chinese dialects. Today, there are still a large number of Manchu phonetics and vocabulary in Chinese in Northeast China and Beijing. The descendants of the garrison flag people living all over the country mostly speak the northern dialect mixed with the local voice, forming "dialect islands" one by one.

surname

The Manchu people call their surname Hala, which is rich and complex and full of national cultural characteristics. At first, a Hara was a Mukun (family). Later, as the population multiplied, the family branches and the garrison were transferred elsewhere, the original Mukun differentiated into several new Mukun. Generally, a Mukun has only one Hara, but several Mukun belong to the same Hara. According to historical records, there are more than 600 surnames of the Manchu nationality, second only to the Han nationality among the surnames of all ethnic groups in China. Like other nations with a long history, the origin of Manchu surnames can be traced back to ancient totem worship, but in terms of later development, there are mainly two kinds of surnames: residence and tribe.

Female immortals often lived in a place where Mu Kun lived. After the song and Yuan Dynasties, they were deeply influenced by the Mongols, so they were called first names instead of last names. After the Qing Dynasty's entry into the customs, ethnic relations continued to develop. Most of the people of the Han Military Banner were named by the way that the Manchu people called their names without their surnames. However, the Manchu people were deeply influenced by the cultural customs of the Han nationality, and many took Chinese characters as their surnames. For example, the guarjia family was renamed Guan by transliteration, the nuhulu family was renamed Lang (Wolf) by free translation, and the irgen juero, also known as min juero, was renamed Zhao in Chinese.

Some also take the first word of the Chinese transliteration of the man surname as the surname, such as Tong Jia for short, Ma Jia for short, and Tu, De, Da, Bao, Hu, a, Zhao, Xi, bu and other surnames. Most of them use the original man surname for short in Chinese characters. The rulers of the Qing Dynasty were very dissatisfied with this situation. After Qianlong, the Qing government banned it many times, but it had little effect. After the revolution of 1911, the vast majority of Manchu people generally used the surname of Chinese characters or changed the surname of Han, so that others did not know that they were Manchu, so that today many Manchu people do not know their old surname.

Riding and shooting

Manchu and its ancestors have lived in mountain and forest areas for a long time. Being good at riding and shooting is their special skill, which also makes a deep mark in their living customs. The rocking car used by Manchu parenting is still used in many rural areas today. When a child was born, he hung a bow and arrow in front of the door, which symbolized that he would become an excellent archer in the future. 6、 At the age of seven, he practiced shooting with wooden bows and arrows. When he was a little longer, he rode and rode through the mountains and forests with arrows. A woman's whip is no less than a man's. When a girl gets married, bows, arrows and deer skin clothes are necessary. Bows and arrows should be inserted on the heaven and earth table when she gets married. When the car comes in, the groom will shoot three arrows. Manchu children's songs and ballads also left deep traces of hunting life.

Clothes & Accessories

Manchu costumes, men's hair from the back of the head, with braids hanging behind their heads, were forcibly popularized throughout the country after entering the customs in the Qing Dynasty, making it a common hairstyle of Manchu, Han and Mongolian nationalities in the Qing Dynasty. Women's hair style, like boys in childhood, is slightly longer. There are one or two braids at the back of the head. When they get married, they open their faces and wear mother of pearl. At ordinary times, the bun on the top of the head has the style of shelf head and two heads. Wearing earrings, there is a set of one ear and three rings. The men's robe is split on both sides, and the waist strap is convenient for riding and shooting. The "arrow sleeve" (Manchu: waha) has its own characteristics. It is connected with a semicircular sleeve shaped like a horse's hoof on the narrow cuff. It is commonly known as the "horse's hoof sleeve". It is usually pulled up, put down when hunting or fighting in winter, and cover the back of the hand to keep out the cold. Later, it became a prescribed action in the etiquette of the Qing Dynasty. The young woman wears a broad straight cheongsam, feet, flower shoes, flower pot bottom and boat bottom. In the early days, the rich wore linen clothes, while the poor wore roe deer skins. After entering Liaoshen, the noble and rich wore silk and satin, while the civilians wore cloth clothes, and their clothes were graded. After entering the customs, the Manchu and Han costumes gradually tended to be consistent, and the waistcoat worn by men is still in use today, while the women's cheongsam has evolved and has become the representative of China's traditional women's clothing.

diet

Manchu food is also very characteristic, which has always been said to be "full of Chinese food". The best representative of the blending of Manchu and Han food culture is the "Manchu Han banquet". Manchu characteristics are maintained in the selection, preparation and eating methods of its dishes. Most of the mountain treasures such as Hericium erinaceus, bear paw, ginseng and pilose antler come from Northeast China. It is a boutique integrating man Dian and Han cuisine. It has been formed during the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and has spread for more than 200 years. According to the record of Yangzhou painted boats between Qianlong and Qianlong, the "man Han banquet" in Yangzhou has ordered more than 100 dishes. In daily life, Manchu people also have many flavor snacks and a wide variety of snacks. I like to eat millet, yellow rice dry rice and yellow rice pastry (bean dumplings). I eat "Ai Jige pastry" (dumplings) during festivals. Every Lunar New Year's Eve, we eat Manchu's unique flavor food for dinner, such as white boiled pork, roasted pork and "SaQima" still existing in cakes. Today, dumplings, hot pot, pickled vegetables and Beijing style cakes in northern China are all related to the Manchu Diet culture.

housing

The house of the Manchu nationality is surrounded by low walls, and there are shadow walls in the courtyard. There are generally three rooms in the room: West, middle and East. The west room is called the West upper room, the middle is the kitchen, and the east room is called the East lower room. The gate faces south. For example, there are two main rooms, the outer room is the kitchen, and a cooker is arranged. There are three bed Kang in the inner room. The West Kang is expensive. It is provided with ancestral God's throne, and there is ancestral God's board on the west wall. The North Kang is large and the South Kang is small. Visitors live in the West Kang, most of the elders live in the North Kang, and the younger generation can live in the South Kang. Manchu houses have more south windows and West windows, which are warm in winter and cool in summer.

marriage

In the old time, Manchu people attached importance to family status and prevailed in early marriage and marrying older women. This is related to the fact that the men in the flag went to war in the hope of having children early. In aristocratic and official families, finger marriage is popular, and the marriage object is mostly designated by the imperial court. Generally, the flag people also have the situation of finger marriage by the patriarch. The "draft" of the court in the Qing Dynasty was to select imperial concubines for emperors and princes, which was generally limited to the internal selection of eight banners and three grade officials. Men and women in the eight banners can be engaged when they are 16 or 7 years old. The age of men's engagement and marriage may be younger. Marriage is arranged by parents. The man invites a matchmaker to the woman to talk about marriage. He has to go three times. Carry a bottle of wine every time. You can't know whether it's successful until the third time. So there is a saying "if you can't, three bottles of wine". If it does, the woman's parents ask the man for betrothal gifts, such as pigs, wine, cabinets, clothes, jewelry, etc. All the betrothal gifts given by the man are the girl's property. In the old times, the Manchu marriage process was various, including marriage discussion, small determination, large determination, gift giving, sending the day, unlocking, sending the dowry, marrying, sitting on the account, getting married, size, returning to the door and living in the moon. When getting married, the bride should sit on the bridal chamber Kang for one day, which is called "sitting blessing". In the evening, there is a table on the ground with two wine pots and cups. The bride and groom hold hands and drink three times around the table. A pair of candles were lit on the Kang and stayed on all night. One or several people outside the room sang a happy song, called "La Kong home", or someone sprinkled black beans on the windows of the new house. The excitement dispersed after an hour or two. Three days later, the bride and groom returned to their mother's house.

ceremony

Manchu people attach importance to etiquette. In the past, the younger generation gave the older generation a small gift in three days and a big gift in five days. Every three days, the younger generation should greet their elders with a thousand. Every five days, they have to kowtow to see their elders. The form of thousand is different between men and women. Men bow down, stretch their right hand and hold their knees with their left hand, like lifting things, and women squat with their hands on their knees. When you meet an unknown elder on the road, you should bow and drop your hands and ask "Saiyin" (Manchu, good meaning). If you are riding a horse, you should get off the horse and make way by the roadside. Wait for the elders to pass, and then get on the horse and go. When meeting relatives and friends from afar, both men and women should give a waist hugging and face-to-face gift.

anniversary

Manchu funeral also has an evolution process. Influenced by the natural geographical environment and other factors, the funeral ceremony of Manchu ancestors was relatively simple and crude. There were sky burial, earth burial, animal burial, tree burial, water burial, cremation and other forms. Before entering the customs, the Manchu mainly used cremation. Since the late period of emperor Shunzhi, under the influence of Han culture, the Manchu has generally changed to coffin burial, and combined with their national characteristics, formed the characteristic burial custom of the Manchu. Before Qianlong, the flag guards in various localities still kept cremation because they wanted to send the dead and their families back to Beijing. After the Qianlong and Jiaqing dynasties, people stationed in the garrison were allowed to bury locally, which was also changed to earth burial. In the early Manchu aristocracy, some people died. Later, it was replaced by hair cutting and burning paper bound slaves. In rural areas, dead people are not allowed to die on the West Kang and the North Kang, because the door is where the living go in and out. Therefore, after the dead enter the coffin, they can only be carried out from the window. When a man died, he set up a pole in the west of the yard, about one foot and five feet high, and hung a cloth flag, nine feet long, made of red and black cloth. The head and tail of the flag are black cloth, and the four in the middle are red cloth. At the funeral, relatives and friends should grab the cloth on the flag, make clothes for their children, think they can avoid evil spirits and don't have nightmares. Today, the Manchu people in Guangzhou maintain a complete Manchu cemetery, and some characteristics of Manchu burial customs can still be seen.

In the long social and historical development, the Manchu ancestors formed a year-old culture rich in their own national characteristics. For example, as far as the Bohai State period, they already had festival customs such as the Spring Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival. These customs are related to the influence of Han culture, but they also have their own national characteristics. For example, the female immortal has the customs of picking Artemisia, eating Artemisia cake, long life lock, shooting willows and sacrificing heaven on the Dragon Boat Festival. After the Qing Dynasty entered the customs, the Manchu culture and the Han culture combined, absorbed each other and gradually became consistent, which still showed some characteristics of the Manchu culture. For example, the Manchu people eat dumplings and SaQima during the Spring Festival. The Manchu Dragon Boat Festival is not to sacrifice Qu Yuan, but to keep fit and get rid of diseases.

The Spring Festival is an important traditional festival for the Manchu people. Before the festival, it is necessary to make a Manchu traditional cake - SaQima, post couplets, window flowers, hanging notes (red, yellow, blue and white respectively according to the flag), and hang the word "Fu". After distributing "God paper" at midnight, the younger men went to each family to "say goodbye". At midnight on New Year's Eve, every family eats dumplings, which means "Geng Sui dumplings". Also put a copper coin (some rich families use money, small protection and precious stones) in the dumplings. Whoever eats it will be lucky all the year round. On New Year's Eve, lanterns are erected in every courtyard, up to two feet high. Pine branches are tied on them, and red lights are hung high. The red lights do not go out until the sixth day of the lunar new year. In the palace, the "sky lamp" was hung on the 24th of the twelfth lunar month until the lamp rose on the third day of the second February of the following year.

The Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the first month is also called "Lantern Festival". In addition to hanging colored lanterns, the Manchu also make "ice lanterns". The main content of the Lantern Festival is not eating lantern, but watching colored lanterns. Thousands of colorful lanterns are hung on the streets of towns inhabited by Manchus. There is also the custom of "steaming lanterns" on the night of the Lantern Festival in rural areas. In the "Yangcheng lamp market" in Guangzhou in the late Qing Dynasty, the lamp made by the flag man was the most dazzling and became a specialty of Guangzhou.

The customs of Manchu at the age of are mostly similar to those of Han nationality, but they maintain many Manchu characteristics. On the 16th of the first month, Manchu women in the north are popular in lying on ice and "rolling ice", symbolizing the removal of bad luck; "Tiancang" on the 25th of the first month to pray for a good year; On the second day of February, "the Dragon looked up" to pray for good weather; March 3 "trip up"; Qingming Festival "sacrifice to the tomb", go to the grave and insert willows; On the Dragon Boat Festival, we should go out for outing, hitting balls, playing swings, etc. In recent years, Manchus everywhere have many folk customs to celebrate the "Gold Award Festival": in the post Jin period, Huang Taiji named the Manchu as "Manchu" (or Manshu and Manshu) on October 13 of the lunar calendar in 1635. Manchus regard this day as the birth day of Manchu and hold Manchu "naming day", that is, the celebration of "Gold Award Festival".

Manchu once believed in Shamanism. "Shaman" is a Tungusic language, which means "crazy man". Chinese translation for wizard. Manchu Shamanism has four meanings: nature worship, totem worship, ancestor worship and idol worship, so there are many and miscellaneous gods to worship. The ways of sacrificial records are also different, including court and folk, rich and poor, region and family. In the early Qing Dynasty, most of the shamans in the imperial palace were intelligent women who were familiar with the Aisin juero clan dialect. They were called Mrs. shaman, who was in charge of the emperor holding various shrines and reciting Manchu to worship gods, which was different from the shamans who treated people's diseases. Until the founding of new China, Manchu still maintained Shamanism in ningguta, Aihui and other places in the northeast. There are two kinds of folk shamans. One is the shaman who dances to the gods, who cures diseases, asks for divination and exorcises ghosts. The other is the home shaman who manages sacrifice and is responsible for sacrificing the ancestors. In the past, Manchu farmers "believed in witches rather than doctors". When they were sick, they first asked shamans to jump out of their minds, and when they were ineffective, they asked doctors for treatment. When the shaman prays and dances, he wears a pointed hat, decorated with five-color notes, droops to cover his face, hangs small glasses outside, wears a long cloth skirt, ties a copper bell around his waist, dances with drums, and speaks words. The family shaman has one in each surname. When offering sacrifices to ancestors, jump to the gods and sing Manchu divine songs to praise the harvest of a year or the merits and virtues of ancestors.

On the west wall of the Manchu main house, there are "ancestral boards" one foot eight inches wide and one foot and a half long, which are called "Japanese garage" in Manchu. A magic knife (HAMA knife) and an arrow were placed during the sacrifice, indicating that they were used by their ancestors. Next to the divine board, there is a yellow cloth bag called "mother's pocket", also known as "offspring's mother", in which three or four Zhang silk ropes are placed, called "offspring's rope" and "long life rope". Before offering sacrifices to ancestors, first connect the ancestral box to the West Kang and place three tables for yellow rice cake. Then the elder in the family opens the box, and the whole family knocks three times according to their generations, and kneels down on the North-South Kang or the outer room respectively. At this time, the shaman began to dress up, put on a skirt, tie a waist bell, put on a god hat, hold a drum, pray in front of his ancestors, and began to jump. When jumping, first turn three circles and step back three steps. While reading a toast and taking dance steps, it usually takes three days and nights.

Offering sacrifices to heaven is usually on the second day of offering sacrifices to ancestors. There is a screen wall in every Manchu courtyard. Behind the screen wall stands a Zhang high pole, known as the "Solon pole", with a pig neck bone at the top. The "Soren pole" is a black boar without miscellaneous hair. After slaughter, put the intestines and bladder into the bucket of the pole and let the crows eat it. It is auspicious to eat it within three days. In addition, chop the pork and add a little millet to cook porridge, which is called millet porridge. Invite relatives, friends, neighbors and even passers-by to eat meat porridge. Meat porridge must be eaten outside the house and must be eaten on the same day.

Manchu folk sacrifice activities are divided into family sacrifice and family sacrifice in scale, morning sacrifice and evening sacrifice in time, and there are many kinds. The contents, methods and procedures of sacrifice in different regions and even different families are also different. The so-called "one surname, one jar of incense".

In the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu also believed in Buddhism and Guan Yu, but the sacrificial ceremony was still different from other nationalities. Descendants of the garrison flag people hang ancestral bags at home. The contents in the bags are the soil of their hometown brought from outside the pass. The Manchu people in Guangzhou offer sacrifices to "luoguangzu", which are the ancestors of the first generation who settled in Guangzhou.

song and dance

Manchu once believed in Shamanism. "Shaman" is a Tungusic language, which means "crazy man". Chinese translation for wizard. Manchu Shamanism has four meanings: nature worship, totem worship, ancestor worship and idol worship, so there are many and miscellaneous gods to worship. The ways of sacrificial records are also different, including court and folk, rich and poor, region and family. In the early Qing Dynasty, most of the shamans in the imperial palace were intelligent women who were familiar with the Aisin juero clan dialect. They were called Mrs. shaman, who was in charge of the emperor holding various shrines and reciting Manchu to worship gods, which was different from the shamans who treated people's diseases. Until the founding of new China, Manchu still maintained Shamanism in ningguta, Aihui and other places in the northeast. There are two kinds of folk shamans. One is the shaman who dances to the gods, who cures diseases, asks for divination and exorcises ghosts. The other is the home shaman who manages sacrifice and is responsible for sacrificing the ancestors. In the past, Manchu farmers "believed in witches rather than doctors". When they were sick, they first asked shamans to jump out of their minds, and when they were ineffective, they asked doctors for treatment. When the shaman prays and dances, he wears a pointed hat, decorated with five-color notes, droops to cover his face, hangs small glasses outside, wears a long cloth skirt, ties a copper bell around his waist, dances with drums, and speaks words. The family shaman has one in each surname. When offering sacrifices to ancestors, jump to the gods and sing Manchu divine songs to praise the harvest of a year or the merits and virtues of ancestors.

On the west wall of the Manchu main house, there are "ancestral boards" one foot eight inches wide and one foot and a half long, which are called "Japanese garage" in Manchu. A magic knife (HAMA knife) and an arrow were placed during the sacrifice, indicating that they were used by their ancestors. Next to the divine board, there is a yellow cloth bag called "mother's pocket", also known as "offspring's mother", in which three or four Zhang silk ropes are placed, called "offspring's rope" and "long life rope". Before offering sacrifices to ancestors, first connect the ancestral box to the West Kang and place three tables for yellow rice cake. Then the elder in the family opens the box, and the whole family knocks three times according to their generations, and kneels down on the North-South Kang or the outer room respectively. At this time, the shaman began to dress up, put on a skirt, tie a waist bell, put on a god hat, hold a drum, pray in front of his ancestors, and began to jump. When jumping, first turn three circles and step back three steps. While reading a toast and taking dance steps, it usually takes three days and nights.

Offering sacrifices to heaven is usually on the second day of offering sacrifices to ancestors. There is a screen wall in every Manchu courtyard. Behind the screen wall stands a Zhang high pole, known as the "Solon pole", with a pig neck bone at the top. The "Soren pole" is a black boar without miscellaneous hair. After slaughter, put the intestines and bladder into the bucket of the pole and let the crows eat it. It is auspicious to eat it within three days. In addition, chop the pork and add a little millet to cook porridge, which is called millet porridge. Invite relatives, friends, neighbors and even passers-by to eat meat porridge. Meat porridge must be eaten outside the house and must be eaten on the same day.

Manchu folk sacrifice activities are divided into family sacrifice and family sacrifice in scale, morning sacrifice and evening sacrifice in time, and there are many kinds. The contents, methods and procedures of sacrifice in different regions and even different families are also different. The so-called "one surname, one jar of incense".

In the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu also believed in Buddhism and Guan Yu, but the sacrificial ceremony was still different from other nationalities. Descendants of the garrison flag people hang ancestral bags at home. The contents in the bags are the soil of their hometown brought from outside the pass. The Manchu people in Guangzhou offer sacrifices to "luoguangzu", which are the ancestors of the first generation who settled in Guangzhou.

Sports

Most of the Manchu traditional sports are related to hunting, such as weightlifting, wrestling, horse vaulting, camel jumping and skating. "Horse vaulting" means to jump horizontally when the horse is running; Jumping a camel is jumping from the back to the back. Horse vaulting and camel vaulting are both techniques for catching the enemy in close combat, and have become one of the sports for regular exercise. Before the mid-19th century, skates were a military skill that eight flag soldiers had to practice. During the Qianlong period, every October of the lunar calendar, the children of the eight banners were reviewed for skating on the Beihai ice in Beijing as one of the systems for training troops. The number of participants in this review reached 1600 (200 per flag). Such a grand skating conference was unparalleled in the world at that time. In addition to performance speed, there are figure skating, ice football, ice acrobatics, skating and archery. The wooden skates used by the old flag men can also be found among the people in Beijing.

education

Manchu is a nation that attaches great importance to culture and education. Since the Qing Dynasty, under the background of the continuous development of ethnic relations, Manchu education and culture have also developed greatly. The popularity and types of Manchu education have set a record. There are eight banners official schools subordinate to the Imperial College, and there are zongxue and Jueluo schools subordinate to the zongrenfu, specializing in the education of the clan and Jueluo children. Outside the Gyeonggi region, government schools were widely set up in the garrison of the eight banners and the northeast of the birthplace. Ordinary flag people mainly study the righteousness of the eight banners. Yixue is subordinate to the participation of all banners, and children of eight banners over the age of 10 enter school. There are also many volunteer schools in the garrison areas, so that the children of the poor flag people can also go to school. Teachers are generally selected under the leadership of the flag to learn Manchu, Manchu and riding and shooting, and their academic achievements are archived. In the later period, local Han Confucian scholars served as teachers, and the learning content mostly turned to Han traditional culture. In terms of imperial examination, since the early Qing Dynasty, there was a special eight flag examination and a Manchu translation examination. At first, the imperial examination was still divided into flag and Chinese, and then gradually integrated. The popularization of education has played an important role in the development of Manchu culture.

work

With the help of the state, the Qing Dynasty compiled a large number of books, such as the integration of ancient and modern books in Kangxi and the Siku Quan Shu in Qianlong, which left valuable wealth to Chinese culture. The Manchus themselves have a considerable number of works handed down. Kang Xi presided over the compilation of "mathematical essence", "calendar and image examination", "Huangyu panorama" and other books, which have high scientific value. The Manchus still have a considerable number of works and achievements in science and technology and medical and health care. Yongqi, the fifth son of Qianlong, was quite accomplished in geometry, and his algorithm was roughly the same as today's geometry. Sun Yihua also has high attainments in the field of mathematics. Rabdon, the imperial governor of Zuo Du, is an expert in repairing foreign clocks and watches. The Manchu surgical bone setting is called "Chuai moving" in the eight banners. Before the prevalence of plaster bandages in western medicine, they had been dominant in Beijing. Isang a in Qianlong period was an osteopathic expert. He trained many osteologists. There are also many medical families among the people stationed in various places.

Early works in Manchu, such as the old file of Manchu, the true record of Taizu and the record of foreign lands written by Tu lichen, are well-known works. Books for learning the application of Manchu, such as enlightenment of Qing Dynasty, must read for beginners, guide to functional characters and essentials of Qing Dynasty, are books that explain Manchu grammar, reading methods, calligraphy and sentence making in Chinese. Manchu translation of famous Chinese works is very common, and most of the famous Chinese works are translated into Manchu. In addition to official books, folk sayings, such as the romance of the Three Kingdoms, the romance of the west chamber, a dream of Red Mansions, plum in the Golden Vase, strange tales from a Liaozhai and so on, have all been translated into Manchu. The strange tales of Liaozhai, translated by Zach Dan, has translated the original look of the book, and the written expression has reached a very high level.

The development of Manchu culture is also prominently reflected in the Manchu's writing in Chinese. The collection of drinking water words and the collection of side hats written by Nalan Xingde, a famous poet, are fresh and natural and have high artistic value. A dream of Red Mansions written by Cao Xueqin, a slave of Zhengbai banner, takes the family life of feudal aristocrats as the background, widely reflects the social reality of China at that time, is known as the Encyclopedia of Chinese feudal society, develops the creative art of Chinese classical novels to an unprecedented peak and occupies an important position in the history of world literature. The miscellaneous records of the roaring Pavilion written by Zhao Zhen, an aristocrat of the Qing Dynasty, is a Book of miscellaneous records on the systems, rituals, events and characters he heard and witnessed in the early Qing Dynasty, which is of reference value for the study of Manchuria, Mongolia and the history of the Qing Dynasty. The record of Yanjing's age written by Fucha dunchong is a record of Beijing's age and customs. There are many foreign versions. The following record of night talk written by the Manchu county magistrate and bang'e reflects the dissatisfaction of the Manchu lower class. There were many young Manchu writers in the Qing Dynasty. The collection of Tianyou Pavilion written by Xilin Taiqing (Gu Taiqing) has high artistic value and is known as the first poetess in the Qing Dynasty. In addition, there are the zither score written by Kede, the idle chanting of flowers written by Wanyan Yuegu, and the grass of Xiangyin hall written by Kuriya.

After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, a new kind of drum CI appeared among the flag people. It only had lyrics, but did not speak plainly. It sang with the three strings of the drum board. It was called "Qingyin Zidishu". It spread widely in cities such as Beijing and Shenyang and was loved by the general public. The younger brother's books borrow boots and the bodyguard sigh written by Helu and Han Xiaochuang are the most widely spread. There is also a folk "octagonal drum" singing and drum Ci, which was still widely spread until the end of the Qing Dynasty.